CAREER PLANNING PROCESS

It is obvious from the foregoing analysis that individuals differ a great deal in terms of their career orientation. The career orientation is influenced by the preference for a particular career anchor, the life-cycle stage one is in and individual differences in values, goals, priorities and aspirations. Organizations also differ in terms of the career paths and opportunities that they can provide given the reality of their internal and external environments. The career systems available in organizations also depend on their value system, growth potential, goals and priorities. The difference between what the employees look for in terms of their career progression and what career growth opportunities the organization is able to provide, gives rise to a situation of potential conflict between the individual aspiration and organizational opportunities. If the con­flict is allowed to persist, the employees will experience dissatisfaction and withdraw from being actively engaged in the productive pursuits. They might even choose the option of leaving the organization. In either case, the organization is not able to op­timally utilize the potential contributions of its employees towards the achievement of its goals.

The possibility of conflict between the individual and organization objectives calls for career planning efforts which can help identify areas of conflict and initiate such actions as necessary to resolve the conflict. Career planning, thus, involves matching of rewards and incentives offered by the career path and career structure with hopes and aspirations of different categories of employees regarding their own concept of progression. A general approach to career planning would involve the following steps:

(i) Analysis of the characteristics of the rewards and incentives offered by the prevail­ing career system needs to be done and made known to employees. Many individuals may not be aware of their own career progression paths as such information may be confined to only a select group of managers.

(ii) Analysis of the characteristics of the hopes and aspirations of different categories of employees including identification of their career anchors must be done through objective assessment. Most organizations assume the career aspirations of individual employees which need not be in tune with the reality. The individuals may not have a clear idea of their short and long-term career and life goals, and may not be aware of their aspirations and career anchors.

(iii) Mechanisms for identifying congruence between individual career aspirations and organisational career systems must be developed so as to enable the organization to discuss cases of mismatch or incongruence. On the basis of above analyses, it will be necessary to compare and identify specific areas of match and mismatch for dif­ferent category of employees.

(iv) Alternative strategies for dealing with mismatch will have to be formulated. Some of the strategies adopted by several organizations include the following:

(a) Changes in the career system by creating new career paths, new incentives, new rewards, by providing challenges through job redesign opportunities for lateral movement and the like.

(b) change in the employees' hopes and aspirations by creating new needs, new goals, new aspirations or by helping the employees to scale down goals and aspira­tions that are unrealistic or unattainable for one reason or the other.

(c) seek new basis of integration, compromise or other forms of mutual change on the part of both employees and organization through problem-solving, negotiations or other devices.

The Need for Career Planning

Organizations can hope to achieve high quality of work from their employees and foster positive attitudes and loyalty among workers through career planning. Career planning ensures that goals of individuals and organizations are in synergy and consequently tries to keep the motivation of managers high. This implies that once the individual becomes aware of his capabilities and opportunities within the organization, he chooses to develop himself in a direction that improves his chances of being able to handle new responsibilities.

Organizational Career Planning

Following activities should be included:

I. Human Resource Forecasting and Planning

This helps in identifying the number of people to be hired. Second. the organizations will be able to coordinate their selection procedure with the overall strategic goals.

2. Career information

This should he shared with employees and includes promotional policy and career paths. Role directions and critical attributes could he made available to employees for identifying possible career paths and competency requirements.

3. Career Counselling

Senior executives should have periodic discussions with their subordinates and offer career counselling to them.

4. Career Pathing

Organizations nowadays plan job sequences for their employees by which transfers and promotions are done more systematically.

5. Skill Assessment Training

Three types of analyses should be performed—organizational analysis, job analysis and job manpower requirement analysis. Organizational analysis and job analysis are the first steps in the training process.

6. Succession Planning

Here organizations assure that competent candidates are available in succession for critical positions. HR subsystems like promotions, terminations, transfers, retirements, etc. also make succession planning necessary.

Limitations of Career Planning

Though career planning helps an organization in numerous ways, it has a few limitations that undermine the importance and relevance of career planning. These arc:

Time Factor

Career planning is usually a long-term and time-consuming process. It is based on the logic of suffering short-term pain to get long-term gains. However, organizations may not be ready to spend a lot of time and resources on a process that would prove beneficial only in the long term.

Unsuitable for Large Workforce,

It may not be possible for organizations with a large workforce to develop individual career plans breach and every employee of the organizat ion. This is because the career plan process requires an in-depth analysis of each employee's strengths and weaknesses on a sustained basis.

Lack of Objectivity

Only those organizations which believe in strict observance of objectivity in promotion and transfers can succeed in career planning. In contrast, favouritism and nepotism in promotions often make career planning an unsuccessful exercise.

External Interventions

Government rules and regulations can also affect the Greer planning options of an organization. For example, the government may make it mandatory for the organization to adopt reserva­tions in promotions, especially iUl is a government organization or a public sector enterprise.

Lack of Knowledge and Awareness

Career planning by an employee is essentially a self-management process. It requires the employees to be aware of the basics of career planning and management activities. However, the employees at the lower levels of the organizational hierarchy may not be familiar with the career planning process.

Lack of Flexibility

Many organizations treat career planning as a ritualistic, rigid exercise. They often fail to consider the uncertainties caused to the career planning activities by the changes in the situa­tion. In fact, the absence of dynamic career planning programmes may limit the applicability of the career plans in uncertain and changing situations.

Difficulty in Measuring Career Success

Since career success is an abstract concept, it is interpreted differently by different persons. Some may consider a good performance in the job as career success. Others may consider the quality of life as an indicator of career success. Still others may consider the vertical mobil­ity in the organizational structure as career success. This divergence of opinions may cause confusion and vagueness in interpreting career success.

Merits of Career Planning

The merits of career planning are quite a few. Some of these have been listed as follows:

· Career planning helps employees in developing career goals and also in accomplishing those goals in a time-bound manner.

· It facilitates employees in identifying the career opportunities available within the organization.

· Ti helps the employees determine their training and development requirements based on self-assessment.

· It helps the organization in finding a fit between the job requirements and the employ­ees knowledge, skill and abilities to choose the right persons for the jobs.

· It provides an occasion for the organization to identify the strengths and weaknesses of its workforce.

· It assists the organization in HR policy formulation. For instance, it facilitates the HR manager in deciding between internal and external sources of recruitment.

· It helps the organization in achieving enhanced job satisfaction, efficiency and commitment for its employees.

· It aids the organization in controlling employee attrition and related hiring costs.

· It assists the organization in developing succession plans for the critical positions in the organization. Thus, it enables the organization to make long-term investments on their employees through succession plans.

· It provides an opportunity to the organization to express its interest in the well-being and future of its employees.

It enables the organization to achieve cordial industrial relations and thus ensure better cooperation from trade unions.

It helps the organization in building goodwill in the labour market and thereby attract the best talents with ease.

Objectives of Career Planning

The primary purpose of career planning by the employees is to develop their career goals strategically and then achieve success by utilizing the available opportunities. The individual employees attempt to achieve career success by employing relevant skills and knowledge. In the case of organization, it is an opportunity to show its interest in and commitment to the svell-being and growth of the employees. Of course, the organization also seeks to achieve optimum employee efficiency and loyalty. The primary responsibility for career planning tics with the employees but the supervisors, the line managers and the HR department have a collective responsibility in designing and developing realistic career plans. We shall now see the important objectives of career planning.

· Career planning facilitates the employees to develop not only their career goals but also the ways to achieve these goals.

· It helps individuals to remain competitive in the labour market by constantly upgrad­ing competences as part of goal fulfilment efforts.

· It acts as the basis or standard for tracing the career progression achieved by an employee throughout his work life.

· It forms the basis for succession planning in the organization. It helps the organiza­tion in its preparation for the future by identifying and developing people for critical positions.

· Through career planning, an organization can attract and retain its best people for a relatively longer period of time.

· Career planning is viewed as an effective technique by the organization to limit the labour turnover and achieve better employee efficiency and commit went.

· It provides an opportunity for the organization to assess the strengths and weak­nesses and also the area of development of the employees for the purpose of career planning and development.

It forms the basis for determining the training and development requirements of each employee in the organization.

Career Planning ----- Meaning Features

MEANING AND DEFINITION

A career can be defined as a sequence of separate but related work activities that provides continuity, order and meaning in a ^person's life.'

Career planning and development is a deliberate process through which a person becomes aware of personal career-related attributes and lifelong series of stages that contribute to his or her career fulfillment. Career planning and development is not a one-shot training programme. It has longer time frame and wider focus. It is an ongoing organised and formalized effort that recognizes people as a viral organisational resource.4

Features of Career Planning

Based on the interpretation of the definitions in Box 9.1, the following features of career planning have been developed:

· Career planning normally follows a bottom-up approach in which the process begins

with the individuals, works upwards, and ends with organizational intervention

· It is not a one-time affair but an ongoing process by which an employee identifies the needs and also the methods to fulfill those needs on a regular basis.

· It aims at matching the individual's career goals with the opportunities available.

· It is a means of achieving employee progression and organizational efficiency and not an end in itself.

· It is the collective responsibility of both the individual employee and the organization.

· It is normally made in a dynamic environment where the changes in the demand for and supply of labour, the characteristics of labour, technology, competitive conditions and market strategies are rapid and often radical.

Performance Appraisal

MEANING AND DEFINITION

1. Performance appraisal is the periodic, formal evaluation of employee performance for the purpose of making career decisions.'

Performance appraisal is a formal, structured system of measuring and evaluating an employee's job related behaviours and outcomes to discover how and why the employee is presently performing on the job and how the employee can perform more effectively in the future so that the employee, organisation and society all benefit.'

3. Performance appraisal involves the identification, measurement and management of human performance in organisation.3

USES OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

Performance appraisal serves several purposes of the organisations. The main uses of performance appraisal are as follows:

1. Administrative use

Performance appraisals arc used administratively whenever they are the basis for the personnel decisions like promotions, transfers, demotions, terminations and rewards.

2. Developmental use

Performance appraisal helps to identify the need and areas for further training and development of the employees.

3. Compensation use

Performance appraisal provides a rational basis for constructing a system of rewards, benefits or bonus.

4. Feedback use

It provides feedback to the employees and informs them where they can improve their performance.

5. Reduce grievances

With the help of proper feedback, the employees receive information about their performance thus reduces the grievances among the employees.

6. Improvement in supervision

A systematic performance appraisal system in organisation makes supervisor always aware and alert about their subordinate performance, as they have to fill the rating forms periodically.

7. Database

Performance appraisal documents and records protect the employer from the charges of discrimination, hiasness and favouritisim. These documents may be needed for legal defense.

8. Effectiveness of earlier stages

Performance appraisal acts as mean of evaluating the effectiveness of recruitment, selection, placement and induction systems in an organisation.

9. Career planning

Performance appraisal records provide a systematic and rational base for management in the career planning of its employees.

10. Motivation

Fair performance appraisal systems help in the assessment and recognition of performance levels of employees. This motivates employees to improve their performance.

BENEFITS OF TRAINING

The major benefits of training are discussed below:

(i) Confidence. Training creates a feeling of confidence in the minds of workers. It gives safety and security to them at the workplace.

(ii) New Skills. Training develops skills which serves as a valuable personal asset of a worker. It remains permanently with the workers himself.

(iii) Promotion. Training provides opportunity for quick promotion and self development.

(iv) Better management. A manager can make use of training to manage in a better way. To him, training the employees, can assist improve his planning, organising, directing, and controlling

(v) Higher productivity. Training increases the skill for employee in the performance of particular job. An increase in skill usually helps increase in both quantity and quality of output. Training is also of great help to the existing employees. It helps them to increase their level of performance on their present job assignments.

(vi) Standardisation of procedures. With the help of training, the

best available methods of performing the work can be standardised and taught to all employees. Standardisation will make high levels of performance rule rather than exception.

(vii) Preparation of future managers. When totally new skills are

required by an organisation, it has to face great difficulties in the selection process. Training can be used in spotting out promising men and in removing defects in the selection process.

(viii) Less supervision. If the employees are given adequate training, the need for supervision is lessened. Training does not eliminate the need for supervision, but it reduces the need for detailed and constant supervision.

(ix) Economical operations. Trained personnel will be able to make better and economical use of materials an equipment. Wastage will also be low. In addition, the rate of accidents and damage to machinery and equipment will be kept to the minimum by the trained employees.

(x) Higher morale. The morale of employees is increased if they are given proper training A good training programme will mould employees' attitudes to achieve support for organisational activities and to obtain better cooperation and greater loyalty

(xi) Quick learning. Training helps to reduce the learning time to reach the acce^ptable level of ^performance The em^plo^yees need not learn

by observing others and waste time if the formal training programme exists in the organisation.

(xii) Higher Earnings. Training provides more remuneration and other monetary benefits to the workers.

(xiii) Adaptability. Training develops adaptability among workers. They don't worry when work procedures and methods are changed.

(xiv) Increased safety. Training workers handle the machines safely. They also know the use of various safety devices in the factory. Thus, they are less prone to accidents.

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT (T&D) METHODS

There are several T&D methods available. The use of a particular method depends which method accomplishes the training needs and objectives. Training methods can be classified into two categories:

I. On-the-Job Methods

This refers to the methods of training in which a person learns a job by actually doing/performing it. A person works on a job and learns and develops expertise at the same time.

1. Understudy

In this the employee is trained by his or her supervisor. The trainee is attached with his or her senior and called understudy or assistant. For example, a future manager might spend few months as assistant to the present manager.

2. Job rotation

This refers to shifting/movement of an employee from one job to another on regular intervals.

3. Special projects

The trainees' may ask to work on special projects related with departmental objectives. By this, the trainees will acquire the knowledge of the assigned work and also learn how to work with others.

4. Experience

It refers to learning by doing. This is one of the oldest methods of on-the-job training. Although this is very effective method but it also very time-consuming and wasteful. Thus it should be followed by other training methods.

5. Committee assignment

In this, the trainees become members of a committee. The committee is assigned a problem to discuss and make recommendations.

6. Coaching

In this, the supervisor or the superior acts as a guide and instructor of the trainee. This involves extensive demonstration and continuous critical evaluation and correction.

II. Off-the-Job Methods

These methods require trainees to leave their workplace and concentrate their entire time towards the training objectives. These days off-the-job training methods have become popular due to limitations of the on-the-job training methods such as facilities and environment, lack of group discussion and full participation among the trainees from different disciplines, etc. In the off-the­job methods, the development of trainees is the primary task rest everything is secondary. Following are the main off-the-job training methods:

1. Special courses and lectures

These are the most traditional and even famous today, method of developing personnel. Special courses and lectures are either designed by the company itself or by the management/professional schools. Companies then sponsor their trainees to attend these courses or lectures. These are the quick and most simple ways to provide knowledge to a large group of trainees.

2. Conferences and seminars

In this, the participants are required to pool their thoughts, ideas, viewpoints, suggestions and recommendations. By attending conferences and seminars, trainees try to look at a problem from different angles as the participants are normally from different fields and sectors.

3. Selected reading

This is the self-improvement training technique. The persons acquire knowledge and awareness by reading various trade journals and magazines. Most of the companies have their own libraries. The employees become the members of the professional associations to keep abreast of latest developments in their respective fields.

4. Case study method

This technique was developed by Harvard Business School, U.S.A. It is used as a supplement to lecture method. A case is a written record of a real business situation/problem faced by a company. The case is provided to the trainees for discussion and analysis. Identification and diagnose of the problem is the aim in case study method. Alternate courses of action are suggested from participants.

5. Programmed instruction/learning

This is step-by-step self-learning method where the medium may be a textbook, computer or the internet. This is a systematic method for teaching job skills involving presenting questions or facts, allowing the person to respond and giving the learner immediate feedback on the accuracy of his or her answers."

6. Brainstorming

This is creativity-training technique, it helps people to solve problems in a new and different way. In this technique, the trainees are given the opportunity to generate ideas openly and without any fear of judgement. Criticism of any idea is not allowed so as to reduce inhibiting forces. Once a lot of ideas are generated then they are evaluated for their cost and feasibility.

7. Role-playing

In this method, the trainees are assigned a role, which they have to play in an artificially created situation. For example, a trainee is asked to play the role of a trade union leader and another trainee is required to perform the role of a HR manager. This technique results in better understanding of each other's situation by putting foot in other's shoes.

8. Vestibule schools

Large organisations frequently provide what are described as vestibule schools a preliminary to actual shop experience. As far as possible, shop conditions are duplicated, but instruction, not output is major objective." A vestibule school is operated as a specialised endeavor by the personnel department. This training is required when the amount of training that has to be done exceeds the capacity of the line supervisor; a portion of training is evolved from the line and assigned to staff through a vestibule school." The advantage of a vestibule school is specialisation.

9. Apprenticeship training

This training approach began in the Middle Ages when those who wanted to learn trade skill bound themselves to a master craftsman and worked under his guidance. Apprenticeship training is a structured process by which people become skilled workers through a combination of classroom instruction and on-the-job training.

10. In-basket exercise

In this technique, the trainees are provided background information on a simulated firm and its products, and key personnel. After this, the trainees are provided with in-basket of memos, letters, reports, requests and other documents related with the firm. The trainee must make sense out of this mass of paperwork and prepare memos, make notes and delegate tasks within a limited time period."

11. Business games

Business games involve teams of trainees. The teams discuss and analyse the problem and arrive at decisions. Generally, issues related with inventories, sales, R&D, production process, etc. are taken up for consideration.

12. Behaviour modeling

This is structured approach to teach specific supervisory skill. This is based on the social learning theory in which the trainee is provided with a specific model of behaviour and is informed in advance of the consequences of engaging in that type of behaviour.

13. Sensitivity (T-group) training

In this type of training, a small group of trainees consisting of 10 to 12 persons is formed which meets in an unstructured situation. There is no set agenda or schedule or plan. The main objectives are more openness with each other, increased listening skills, trust, support, tolerance and concern for others. The trainers serve a catalytic role. The group meets in isolation without any formal agenda. There is great focus on inter-personal behaviour. And, the trainer provides honest but supportive feedback to members on how they interacted with one another.

14. Multiple management

This technique of training was first introduced by McCormick, President of McCormick & co. of Baltimore in 1932. He gave the idea of establishing a junior board of directors. Authority is given to the junior board members to discuss any problem that could be discuss in senior board and give recommendations to the senior board. Innovative and productive ideas became available for senior board.

THE TRAINING PROCESS

Generally, training programs consist of six steps. These are the following:

I. Assessment of Organisational Objectives

First of all, in an organisation, there should be a proper assessment of objectives. Employers today have to adopt to technological changes, improve product and service quality and boost productivity to stay competitive.'

II. Assessment of Training Needs

Before an organisation takes decision regarding training of its workers and allocates huge resources for it, organisations have to assess the training needs of its employees. In this regard, a trainer has said, "we sit down with management and help them identify strategic goals and objectives and the skills and knowledge needed to achieve them. Then we work together to identify whether our staff has the skills and knowledge and when they do not that's when we discuss training needs."'

Training need analysis step is crucial for many reasons. For example, employees' performance may be down because the work standards are not clear to them, due to faulty selection, due to

lack of motivation, poor job design, less supervision or personal problem. In these cases, the problem may be solved just by proper job design, offering incentives to motivate, improving supervision, etc. Where the deficiency in performance is because of lack of knowledge or skill, there training is essentially required.

The two main ways to identify training needs are task analysis and performance analysis. Task analysis is a detailed study of a job to identify the specific skill required and it is especially suitable for determining the needs of employees who are new to their jobs.'° Whereas, performance analysis is the process of verifying that there is performance deficiency and determining if such deficiency should be corrected through training or through some other means (like transferring the employee))' Apart from task and performance analysis supplementary methods can be used to identify training needs such as supervisors' reports, personnel records, management requests, observations, test of job knowledge and questionnaire surveys.'2

III. Establish the Training Objectives

Once it is clear that training is the solution of performance deficiency then the training objectives are set. In other words, once training needs are assessed, then the objectives of training are established. These objectives will specify what a trainee should accomplish after the successful completion of a training programme. For example, to type 60 words per minute without difficulty and 2 to 3 errors per page, to program a single website in half a day, etc.

IV. Designing the Training Programme

Once it is decided that there is a need to train employees and what they should learn, now this is the time to design the training programme. This refers to deciding about the contents of the training programme, i.e. deciding about trainers, methods and techniques of training.

Regarding trainers, these are usually recommended by the HR department. Most of the professional organisations have a centralised database of their employees, by regular evaluation of the skills reouired the^y iust inform the regional heads to send their employees for training. For example, Indian Airline's (now known as 'Indian') training programmes are conducted at Hyderabad. Trainers can be HR department's staff, consultants, supervisors, university faculty members, etc. Selection of trainers is linked with selection of training methods and techniques. Generally, training is divided into two broad categories, on-the- job training (OJT) and off-the-job training.

V. Implementation of Training Programme

Once a training programme has been designed now there is need to implement it. This involves finding a suitable place for the conduct of training, schedule the whole training programme in such a way that it does not disrupt the smooth functioning of organisation, keep record about the performance of trainees during the training period and monitor trainees progress side by side.

VI. Evaluation of Training Programme

After the completion of the training programme, the organisation evaluates the programme to see the effectiveness of training efforts. This is done to check whether the training programme accomplish specific training objectives or not. Also, the conduct of training programme is costly; this includes needs assessment costs, salaries of the training department staff, purchase of equipment (computers, video, handouts), programme development cost, evaluation costs, trainer's costs, rental facilities and trainees wage during the training period." Thus it is important to assess the costs and benefits associated with the training programme, in order to convince the top management that the benefits outplay costs.

Training and Development

MEANING AND DEFINITION

1. Training is the act of increasing the knowledge and skill of an employee for doing a particular job.'

2. Training refers to the methods used to give new or present employees the skills they need to perform their jobs.'

3. Training refers to any process by which the aptitudes, skills and abilities of employees to perform specific jobs are increased.'

PURPOSE OF TRAINING

Training is essential in organisations because of the following reasons:

1. To increase employees' performance on their current assignment.

2. To prevent industrial accidents. Through training workers know the right way of doing the job and how to handle the machines. Thus it increases safety measures taken by workers and reducing the chances of accidents.

3. To prevent manpower obsolescence. Due to technological changes and competition, workers are required to update and well-equip themselves with the latest ways of job performance. So, training helps them in learning the new methods

4. To increase employee morale. A well-trained employee will take interest in his work and derives satisfaction from his job. This raises his morale to perform vell in future.

5. To reduce wastage. An untrained person will waste the costlier raw material, damage machines and even cause accidents. With the help of training, workers come to know what is the right way of using the material, what is the right way of operating and handling the machine, etc.

6. A trained person needs less supervision as compared to an untrained person. A trained person can take routine decisions by himself and is most disciplined. Training helps to make employee independent and more responsible towards the job.

7. To enhance employee's adjustment with the latest changes at work place. For instance, technological developments require new approach towards work. it is only through training that a worker can easily learn new work techniques. A little bit of computer training is required these days in almost every field like banks, railways, etc. to adjust to new ways of doing work.

8. To reduce absenteeism and turnover. A trained worker takes full interest in his job thus derives job satisfaction. A satisfied worker will be regular and thinks less to quit.

9. To fill the vacancies when need arises. An organisation by imparting training makes a ready pool of trained candidates available with it. Whenever there is vacancy at higher level so it will take less time and effort to promote a trained person.

10. Lastly, training is also essential for the overall growth of workers. Management development programmes seem to give participants a wider awareness, an enlarged skill and enlightened altruistic philosophy and make enhanced personal growth possible.' Also, with the help of training, employees acquire knowledge and skills, this increases their market value and earning power.

Personnel Management - 1

MEANING OF PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT

The earliest roots of this branch of knowledge can be traced back to the eighteenth century to some of the writings of Robert Owen—a successful textile manufacurer in scotland. Robert Owen is regarded as the father of personnel management. Owen believed that the volume and quality of a worker's output were influenced by his total environment, i.e., by his conditions both on and off job. In this respect he reached the thresold of modern thinking though many of his practices were what could now be called paternalisitic. The work of a personnel department deals soecifically with procuring, hiring, training, placing, utilising and maintaining an effective wrok force that will aid in the accomplishment of the firm's objectives. This does not mean to imply that other members of the management team do not have a part in the management and development of personnel. Personnel management is not a one-man responsibility nor can it ever be achieved by one individual. It is corporate. co-operative endeavour that should stem from a common feeling and concept and should progress in a unified, coordinate manner. In other words, personnel management is concerned with getting better results with the collaboration of people

According to Jucius, "Personnel management is the field of management which has to do with planning, organising, and controlling various operative activities of procuring, developing, maintaining and utilising a labour force in order that the objectives and interest for which the company is established are attained as effectively and economically as possible and objectives and interest of all levels of personnel and community are served to the highest degree" Personnel management is responsible for maintaining good human relations in the organisation. It is also concerned with the development of individuals and achieving integration of goals of the organisation and those of individuals.

"Personnel management is an extension of general management that of prompting and stimulating every employee to make his fullest contribution to the purpose of a business" Personnel management is not something that could be separated from the basic managerial function. It is a major component of the broader managerial function and has roots and branches extending throughout and beyond the organisation.

According to Flippo, "Personnel management may be defined as the p(anning,organising, directing. and controlling of the procurement, development,compensation,integration and maintenance and separation of human resources to the end that individual, organisational and societal objectives are accomplished.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT.

The above definitions on personnel management reveal the following characteristics:

(i) Personnel management is a specialised branch of management and hence all the principles of general management (as well as functions of management) are applicable to personnel management.

(ii) Personnel management is basically concerned with human resources. Personnel management advocates the ways to get best possible results by managing the scarcely available human resources effectively and efficiently.

(iii) Personnel management is concerned with relationship between employer and employee; between employee and employee; and among employees. By the term employee we mean to include blue- collar as well as while-collar workers.

(iv) Personnel management concentrates on the development of individual and group in an organisation for achieving better results.

(v) Personnel management focuses on employment planning

(vi) Personnel management gives adequate direction to the developmental activities—of lower-level employees as well as executives.

(vii) Personnel management aims at providing the necessary guidance for improving performance (through performance appraisal of employees) of employees.

(viii) Personnel management aims at maintaining good human relations.

(ix) Above all, personnel management is concerned with recruitment, selection, training and placement of employees within work organisations.

(x) Personnel management provides for fair and reasonable compensation to employees.

Thus, personnel management is an approach (an approach to deal with human beings in organisation), a point of view (regarding the personnel policies and wage administration), a technique of thinking (as to how to motivate employees towards higher productivity) and a philosophy of management (of getting things done through people effectively and efficiently).

Robert Owen. Robert Owen was an outstanding pioneer of management thought. He started a factory at Manchester for the manufacture of textile machinery and in 1800, he became the managing directory of Chariton Twist Company. He carried out experiments in the group of textile mills he managed duringthe period 1800 and 1828 and introduced many social reforms. He also began cooperative movement in 1828 in Rochdale, England.

Robert Owen has been referred to as the father of personnel management. Throughout his life, he worked for building up of a spirit of co-operation between the workers and the management. he believed and practised the idea that workers should be treated as human beings. He made provision for reduced working hours, housing facilities, education of workers and their children, and a system of discipline combined with justice in the factories being managed by him. He also took active part in the introcuction of British Factory Act, 1819. fie was greatly admired for giving human treatment to the workers. He preached that personnel management pays dividends to the employer and is an essential part of every manager's job.

Charles Babbage. Charles Babbage was a leading British mathematician at Cambridge University from 1828-1839. He invented a mechanical calculator in 1822. He advocated work measurement, cost determination, and wage incentives in factories. He is best remembered adas the inventor of the 'analytical engine which was the force runner of the modern computer. In 1832, Babbage published his famous book "On the Economy of Machinery and Manufacturers." He stressed the importance of division of physical and mental labours, suggested the idea of profit-sharing, and began observing and timing work. His vision was that of irnoroving efficiency through the application of scientific techniques.

Daniel C. McCallum. Daniel C. McCallum tried to find solutions to managerial inefficiencies which were plaguing the railroads at that time. His approach to run the railroad was one of system, commonsense. reports and control He initiated job descriptions, made promotions on the basis of mei-it and insisted that those in charge of specific operations were both responsible and accountable for their successes and failures.